Developing nursing standards of practice Essay

These are the process for the developing nursing standards of practice Standard 1: Assessment: The registered nurse collects comprehensive data about patient’s health. Standard 2: Diagnoses: The registered nurses analyze the assessment data to determine the diagnoses or the issues. Standard 3: Outcome identification: The registered nurse identifies the expected outcomes for the patient’s plan of care. Standard 4: Planning: The registered nurse develops the plan that authorizes strategies and a way to obtain the outcomes. Standard 5: Implementation: The registered nurse implements the identified plan. Standard 5A: Coordination of care: The registered nurse coordinates care delivery. Standard 5C: Consultation: The registered nurse provide consultation to control the identified plan and effect change. Standard 5D: Prescriptive authority and power: The registered nurse uses rigid authority, procedures, treatments, and therapy in accordance with state an federal laws and regulations. Standard 6: Evaluation: The registered nurse evaluates progress towards fulfillment of outcomes. Different entities that might be involved in developing the standard practice. American Nurses Association members are the first link in developing sources (American Nurses Association, 2014). The Department of Health Scope of Practice might be involved in the development of standards (â€Å"Scope of Practice,† 2014). State boards of nursing develop standards of  care at the state level and enforce those standards. The American Nurse Credentialing Center (ANCC) work on the national level. Professional specialty nursing organizations, Educational institution, state boards of nursing and other government agencies develop standards of care. The American nurses Association and the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organization (JACHO) recognized standards of care. Federal and state laws, rules and regulation and other professional agencies/organizations help define standards of practice. The ANA and Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organization (JCAHO) established nationally recognized standards of care. References American Nurses Association: Professional Standards (2014). Retrieved from http://nursingworld.ord/nursingstandards Scope of practice decision tree (2011). Retrieved from http://www.doh.wa.gov

Blackwater: The Rise of the World’s Most Powerful Mercenary Army by Jeremy Scahill

The book under consideration, Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army, has been written by Jeremy Scahill. The author of this book has presented a very hard-left perception on Blackwater USA, which has proclaimed itself, to be a contractor of private military as well as a security firm.Blackwater USA, according to the author owes its subsistence, reduction of the U.S. armed forced after the Cold War and it owes it’s well-being to the addition in the number of these forces after the tragedy of 9/11 and it further owes it’s disrepute to the fact that it has gained a reputation of being a mercenary setup which has the tendency to finish off the limitations on the army systems that are accountable to state power. Main Theme of the BookIn his well-known book, Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army, the author Jeremy Scahill puts forward information about the Bush Administration as well as its rising reliance on private secur ity forces such as Blackwater USA in particular and the efforts in Congress so as to bring them in. Through his book, the author has exposed the truth behind Blackwater the mercenary firm and the dangers that it brings about because of the outsourcing the government’s domination that it has on the use of force over people.The author of the book has described the growth of Blackwater, since the very beginning with respect to its organizational and instructional functions to what has now turned into a battle position serving as an interior security force in Iraq. In the words of the author, â€Å"Meet Blackwater USA, the powerful private army that the U. S. government has quietly hired to operate in international war zones and on American soil. This is the unauthorized story of the epic rise of one of the most powerful and secretive forces to emerge from the U. S. military-industrial complex† (Scahill, front cover).The book puts forward citations from representatives of the company according to whom Blackwater has the capacity to become so large that it can readily supply brigade-sized forces for civilized reasons, such as matters of maintaining peace as well as low-level disagreements. At the same time as placing emphasis on the likelihood of an a very daring President, who had the courage to take up the services of the mercenaries of Blackwater clandestinely, the author underrates the consequence of exposure on the deniability that he considers as crucial for happenings like these.Debatably, he also negates and that too in a very light manner the image of Blackwater which has now come down to a sort of reputable successor to a long and praiseworthy custom of indenture soldiering. Eventually, Blackwater as well as its other less famous equivalents flourish not just because of a neoconservative plot in opposition to the democratic system, as the author pronounces, but for the reason that they present comparatively low-priced substitutes and options in surroundings that have higher budgets as well as litheness at a time when war is progressively more erratic.The book presents to us the truth about Blackwater as well as its actions along with information about its rise as well as an account of the streets of Fallujah, to the bloodshed taking place in Najaf as well as the US gulf wrecked with storms and Washington DC, where higher authorities of Blackwater continue to be considered heroes fighting the war on terror. The book says that the resistance of the Iraqi people is perhaps the fault of the American soldiers themselves. According to the book, â€Å"the ensuing slaughter by U. S. troops would fuel the fierce Iraqi resistance that haunts occupation forces to this day† (Scahill, front page).Conclusion In the light of the above discussion we can hereby culminate that the book under consideration namely Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army was written by Jeremy Scahill. In this book, the autho r puts forward the truth about Blackwater as the rising most powerful mercenary army as well as the way by which the Bush administration hired it secretly and the problems that it poses. Works Cited Scahill, J. Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army. United States of America. Nation Books. ISBN-10: 1560259795. Pg 1, front cover

IP Networking Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

IP Networking - Lab Report Example Company X headquarters has a total of four directorates and 400 employees. The department includes the executive leadership, research and development, human resources, and sales. Region 1 has customer service and accounting department, Region 2 has marketing and advertising department, while region 3 has inventory, manufacturing, and engineering departments. To accommodate the network growth the company will have to use the VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) which was previously ignored by a consultant. This is after the company realized that all the network addresses are statically generated. This led to a high administration overhead when the networks and locations are added to the network. The company therefore has opted to come up with a standard IP addressing table for the WAN links and their locations. It has also decided to sample the configuration of Cisco for each and every location. Additionally, it will deny the users in Region 2 from accessing the offices of region 3 seri al interface. At the end of the configuration the company will generate a network diagram capturing the whole system. Technical Details IP Addressing Table and WAN links for the Locations ASSIGNED IP NETWORKS IP Network Region Department IP Address VLAN 207.17.5.0/24 Corporate X headquarter Executive Leadership 20 1 Sales 80 1 Human Resources 25 1 Research and Development 275 2 207.17.8.0/24 Region 1 Accounting 20 1 Customer Service 80 1 207.17.9.0/24 Region 2 Advertising 23 1 Marketing 47 1 207.17.10.0/24 Region 3 Manufacturing 25 1 Engineering 78 1 Inventory 22 1 WAN LINKS IP Network Region       WAN Required 207.17.11.0./24 HQ to Region 1       2 HQ to Region 2       2 HQ to Region 3       2 Future expansion       2 Future expansion       2 Future expansion       2 Cisco configurations Here it is assumed that every network interfaces are operational and is ready for consultant’s configuration. The configuration entails the Ethernet configuration , VLAN configurations, the serial ports, routing protocols, and the summarization route from the headquarters’ office to region 1. The section describes how the three regional offices will be connected to the corporate’s headquarter. The corporate will use the following WAN options; synchronous leased line, frame relay, asynchronous dial-up line, and x.25. The WAN encapsulation will comprise of the point-to-point protocol, frame relay, X.25, and HDLC (High Level Data Link Control). The routed protocols will include IP and IPX. Other feature in the system are Dynamic IP routing, IPX routing and Dynamic IP, IPX routes and Static IP, sub-interfaces, and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Additionally, the configurations options include the Command line Interface and cisco 805 Fast Step. The table below shows the sample network configuring the three regions and the headquarters to ISP networks. Region No WAN options WAN Encapsulations Routed Protocol Other Features Confi guration Options Headquarters Synchronous Leased Line HDLC IP Dynamic IP routing CLI, Cisco Fast Step Software Region 1 Asynchronous dial up line PPP IP Static IP route Firewall IPCP/PPP CLI, Cisco Fast Step Software Region 2 Synchronous Leased Line PPP IP Static IP route CLI, Cisco Fast Step Software Region 3 Frame Relay Frame Relay IP Firewall, Static IP route, and NAT overload CLI, Cisco Fast Step Software Before configuring, the following steps will be done: the network administrators from the headquar

The Maltese Youth Policy 2004 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Maltese Youth Policy 2004 - Essay Example The policy covers the psychological, mental and physical realms of young people's health. Since the policy focuses on prevention rather than treatment, this is a wise approach by the Maltese government because it implies that they have realised that good health starts at an early age. This objective is to be implemented through establishment of health education. (Youth Forum, 2006a) The Maltese Youth Policy is also quite unswerving in its approach because it focuses on some of the dangerous activities that youth engage in and those that can be detrimental to their health. This has been achieved through placement of professionals to deal with those dangerous issues e.g. unprotected sex, addiction, promiscuity, careless driving, malnutrition and dangerous leisure activities. The Policy also considers the fact that youth need to be protected in their work places and therefore introduces the issue of promotion of safety standards within workplaces. There are some weaknesses in the policy too. The first is the fact that very little has been done to address the issue of diversity within the nation yet there are a number of foreign youth in the country. Additionally, the policy has described all the issues that need to be addressed but it has not implemented some of these issues. Part of the reason why implementation has been slow was because some of the terms in the policy are ambiguous. For example, the policy claims that it will 'promote' health as part of the holistic approach to health. However, details on how this can be achieved have not been clearly laid out. Additionally, the policy has not specified which age groups or classes will need health education. The policy has made a sweeping statement about the importance of early education as a base for healthy living yet there are various interpretations to the term 'early'. (Eurodesk, 2004) A Critique of the Youth Health policy in Slovakia, Britain and Finland The Youth Policy in Britain focuses on a number of issues facing young members of society. Some of them include; embracing diversity within the nations' youth agenda, promoting participation of the youth in activities that affect their country including sports and many others. However, there is very little focus on health. Despite giving numerous suggestions on how the overall well being of the youth can be improved, there is still little effort to link those suggestions to health. (ESPNsoccernet, 2008) However, there are some positive aspects about the policy too. The policy initiated a campaign against unhealthy eating habits and childhood obesity. It also created a personal health initiative where there would be focus on the young people between the ages of twelve and thirteen. This was introduced in order to assist young people in the process of making a transition from their teenage years into later stages of life. However, even this initiative is not all encompassing as it has not looked at emotional and mental aspects of health. All in all, one can conclude that the Youth Policy in Britain is quite elaborate but lacks precision under the health agenda. The Youth Policy in Finland is examined after every ten years through the Youth Act. The last change was

Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 57

Reflection - Essay Example Firstly, empiricism holds that the mind of a child has no innate traits. If not corrupted by the society, such a child has the tendency to act towards goodness or neutrality since they have been least predisposed to the world. However, an interesting question that might arise is; why do we have to spend so much time teaching children how to behave if humans are naturally good? Well, that sounds perplexing but since their minds are blank, we have to spend much time teaching them the socially tolerable manners and prevent them from adopting the unacceptable ways of the world. What’s more, our moral philosophies and actions are a product of our social nature. However, there are elementary rules of prudence and justice that explicates and defines how individuals should act for the survival of a peaceful society. I believe that is why we have governments that have enabled the society to flourish. In the absence of governments, the society would spiral into outright pandemonium and confusion would be the order of the day. Factually, the government makes and enforces laws since we believe that human beings are evil and are likely to act unbecomingly if left to exist in an anarchy state, where laws do not exist. While it is true that we are evil, I disagree with the debaters who perceive humanity as wholly evil. I blame it on the media that overemphasis on the evil part while ignoring majority of good things that take place daily, as though it is actually promoting evil over good. A cursory glance at news headlines makes us develop a pessimistic attitude towards humanity. The ceaseless reports of bigots, assassins, thieves, bullies, bombers and racists makes any rational individual to lose hope of ever living in a judicious society where good is what guides individuals’ actions. Regrettably, we are biologically susceptible to evil conducts, and we must, therefore, strive to act

The Summary Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Summary Report - Essay Example igation in different terms, policies and steps to prevent the change, and some other crucial factors that pose hinders in the way of the mitigation of climate change. In the context of growing concern for the global warming â€Å"Summery For Policymakers† is an attempt to save the environment from further disasters caused by global warming. During the recent years the changes that are evidenced in the climate of the world, are a matter of great concern for the scientists and the common people of the world. The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report attempts to find out the ways of mitigation of climate change. For the sake of conveniences, the report renders various aspects of climate change, such as social, environmental, economic aspects, in order to accomplish the task of mitigation fruitfully. The report mainly focuses on the following topics: the trend in the emission of Greenhouse Gas, its mitigation in different terms, policies and steps to prevent the change, and some other crucial factors that pose hinders in the way of the mitigation of climate change. Studies show that emissions of Greenhouse Gas have increased seventy percent over the years from 1970 to 2004. Both man-made and natural factors are responsible for the increase of the emission of the Greenhouse gas. Among the human activity related factors development of science and increasing use of technologies are the major factors that are the most responsible for the apparently abrupt growth rate of green house gases- carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, etc. â€Å"The emissions of these gases have increased at different rates† (IPCC, 2007, p. 3). In the study, a thing is remarkable that the emission of greenhouse gases was violent around the years from 1990 to 2004. During these years the violent emissions of Greenhouse gases occurred mainly in the energy supply sector. The emission rate is about 145 percent. The emission scenario is as following: 120 percent from transport, from industry 65 percent, from

Palliative Care of Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Palliative Care of Nursing - Essay Example In its advanced stages, most patients need extensive care which includes palliative care in permanent or out-patient hospice nursing ("Cancer: Prognosis", n.d.). The Coordinating Committee (Hospice) of Hospital Authority (HA) Hong Kong SAR Government defines hospice or palliative care as "the care of the patients and their families with active progressive advanced disease and a limited prognosis for whom the focus of care is the quality of life" (Liu, 2005, p.183). Palliative care started in Hong Kong in 1982. At the beginning, it was a "consultative team" in a general hospital. In 1986, a second palliative care team was established who worked primarily with those who had incurable lung malignancy. Diagnosis of the disease was not necessary in order to get a referral. The team gave pain and symptom management as well as practical, emotional and spiritual support to the patient and their family. Due to lack of public knowledge, patients had unrealistic expectations thinking that palliative care can cure the disease and prolong ones life. It was not until 1985 when a demarcation between cure and palliative care was made with the help of the So ciety for the Promotion of Hospice Care. Their goals were aimed at public education, fund raising, and the establishment of an independent hospice in Hong Kong which will serve as a discernible symbol for the public (Sham, 2003, p.65). It was through their efforts that the Hong Kong community came to know and understand the scope of palliative care. In an article by Hon Joseph Lee in his interview with Dr. York Chow on hospice care services, it was written: At present, there are 10 palliative care centers and six oncology centers [in Hong Kong] under HA [Hospital Authority] to provide palliative/hospice care, which includes in-patient service, out-patient service, hospice/palliative day care service, home care service and bereavement counseling (December, 2008). Patients who admit themselves in hospice are almost always dying. Different cultures have different perceptions of death. In Hong Kong, "death is seen as a curse" (Chow and C. Chan, 2005, p.2). It is believed that the very thought of death will bring bad luck and the very mention of death will invite evil spirits in or speed up the process. The Chinese concept of death is deep-rooted and is influenced by the Folk and Taoist beliefs that "the dead have to be judged in hell and punished according to the sins that they have committed in life" (C. Chan, 1999, p.213). Chan (1999) cited examples that illustrate the Folk and Taoist teachings on children: Children are told if they steal when alive, when they die their hands will be cut off as a punishment. If people do not treat their family well, they will be eaten by hungry dogs. If someone kills, he or she will be burnt in eternal fire (p.213). Because of this grotesque and mind boggling picture, they do not talk about death nor do they prepare for it. This leaves them ill-equipped and often times carrying heavy emotional baggage to their grave. Chinese people in Hong Kong have a traditional attitude that contributes to the disinclination to intervene when a person is dying. It is believed t

Corporate Social Responsibility of IKEA company Essay

Corporate Social Responsibility of IKEA company - Essay Example 47). Consumption rate is expressed in terms of preference to the products and services and the way customers feel and perceive they can associate with the values of the organization or its cause. Pressure to be the best corporate citizen also emerges from the business consumers who buy the components as well as raw materials from the dealers and desire them to act in an ethically acceptable way and environmentally sound manner. This study analyses the case of IKEA’s corporate social responsibility initiatives, devotions and communications and relation to various stakeholders in the Soviet Union. IKEA as a company provides an amazingly rich case for analyzing CSR. IKEA is the biggest global firm dealing in furniture retail chains. The company has enjoyed the privilege of high profile marketing achievements. The retail turnover of the organization has risen up by about 400% in the past ten years (Porter and Kramer, 2006; p. 57). The business model of the firm is based on the concept of getting the control over tactical resources especially via logistical management of a network that consists of 1,500 dealers in 50 emerging and developing nations. The dealers assume the mediators and supply the materials straight to IKEA, which reduces the costs associated with retailers to enable the company to provide low cost furniture to the consumers. Nonetheless, the seeming elimination of the globe’s natural forest has led to a piling pressure on IKEA from various advocates of environment and its global outlook which has made it a spotlight of protesters of anti-globalization. Hence IKEA has included concerns of sustainability, in particular the CSR principles (Economist, 2005: p. 13). With approximately 298 retail stores in about 26 country outlets and 139, 000 employees across the globe, IKEA Group has continued to grow its services in wood sourcing, value chain sales to

Implementing a Logical Plan on Changing Management in Business Research Paper

Implementing a Logical Plan on Changing Management in Business - Research Paper Example Many industries in different sectors use different strategies in ensuring they are performing to their best. Some firms ensure they concentrate on making the best products which are attractive to the market. However, these products attract a higher price tag. On the other hand, some firms use the economies of large scale production. In such a case, the firm produces bulky products and services that are retailed at a lower price. In business terms, this strategy is known as scalping. The firm ensures it gets low profits on bulky products and services, which results to high profits in the end. However, the Zappos experience is different from the aforementioned firms. Zappos uses a number of strategies which are evidently enhancing the performance of the firm. The collective efforts from these strategies have been a success in the firm as it has grown over the years (Joseph, 2012). Apparently, the credit is given to the managers of Zappos as they have used technical and personal skills to accrue this success. It is a reward to their commitment and dedication to the firm. However, without such dedication, the positive results would not be realized. First, Zappos ensures all the strategies are applied across all their industries and business. Using such a criterion in all the sectors of the firm ensures there is leveled performance. Though the performance will vary, the difference is not much and this will not affect the business. All the industries under the Zappos umbrella have to implement all the stated strategies in making success (Chopra, 2012). Since the strategies are proven to accrue success, the Zappos firm will not have a hard time in attaining its stated goals. For instance, all the organizations have to ensure they are following the laid procedures in approaching a market. This will instill the needed demand in the market. Therefore, the industries and business will make substantial profits which are needed. Secondly, the Zappos experience is heightened by the fact that the firm has a soft spot for diversity. Diversity is where different people are employed in different department to work on particular tasks. The people that are delegated duties in the different departments have credibility and specialization in the stated sector. As such, they will employ all their technical and practical skills to make sure the firm is performing to the best outcomes (Stokes and Wilson, 2006). For instance, financial managers are employed in the financial department to deal with finance issues. Since they have ample training in the stated subject, it is almost obvious that the firm will be performing well. Similarly, the firm adores

Hispanic Americans Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Hispanic Americans - Research Paper Example The Hispanic Americans in United States consists of four particular groups. They are the Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans and Central / South Americans. Mexican Americans Mexican Americans, as of July 2009, constitutes 10 . 3 % of the United States population. They â€Å" comprise 66 % of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States † ( â€Å" Mexican American† ) . United States houses the second largest Mexican community in the world right after Mexico itself. Mexican Americans as a race is a general agglomeration of Native Mexicans, Spaniards and other Hispanicize European settlers. Their history in the United States ranges for over four hundred years. By 1900 their settlements were mainly focused in the New Mexico, California and Texas. As a matter of fact Californios were strictly Spanish speaking citizens of present day California, who later became associated with the society soon after the California Gold Rush. Presently the Mexican .Americans have a sub stantial population in the cities of Los Angeles, Culver City, Long Beach, La Puente, Chicago, Houston, Phoenix, Dallas, San Francisco Bay Area, Denver and more. In order to avoid racial classification, the United States Census Bureau in 1970 tried to classify Hispanics by â€Å" Spanish speakers and persons belonging to a household where the head of household was a Spanish speaker† Persons by Spanish heritage by birth location or surname Persons who self – identified Spanish origin or descent † ( â€Å" Mexican American † ) Spanish continues to be the main language of the Mexicans since the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. English was of minor importance because of proximity of southwestern U S to Mexico. In the beginning of twentieth century, with the second and third generations now on track, English became necessary with different work professions being available. But still in 1980s there were 100 Spanish news papers, with around 500 radio stations and 130 television stations. Since 1960s, there had been a huge influx of illegal Mexican immigrants in the United States which had heavily increased the cheap labor work force of the country. As the prospect of deportation is a constant threat they are highly subjected to exploitation by the employers, who often take a â€Å" don’t ask †, â€Å" don’t tell † attitude towards them. The immigrants are racially dubbed as â€Å" Wetbacks † which is a lucid approach just like â€Å" nigger † to African – Americans. Mexican Americans as a whole mainly form the nucleus of blue collar occupations in the U S. this includes from working as restaurant workers, truck drivers, janitors, gardeners, construction labors and metal moving workers. Several incidents of tensions had often aroused between Mexican immigrants and other ethnicities and also between Hispanic Americans and cheap Mexican labors over the sustainability of working – class jobs. â€Å" However, according to a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center in June 2007, 63 % of Americans would support an immigration policy that would put illegal immigrants on a path to citizenship if they â€Å" pass background checks, pay fines and have jobs, learn English † † ( â€Å" Mexican American † ) , Socially, immigrants from Mexico come from lower stratus of social ladder and are involved in low skilled jobs by generations. Usually they are form rural areas. Strictly speaking,

What Lies on the Other Side Essay Example for Free

What Lies on the Other Side Essay Imagine looking out to the other side wondering how life goes on in a different world. Mexican citizens often wonder that same thought. Some Mexicans would like to share a piece of the American dream. The only issue at hand though, is whether the citizens of Mexico cross United States Borders legally or illegally. Illegal immigration has become an ever growing problem, adding to the United States debt and causing controversy nationwide. The issue at hand occurs for numerous reasons, although a few are a direct reason why illegal immigration occurs. One main and probable cause for illegal immigration can be accounted for by the introduction of The North American Free Trade Agreement. Illegal Immigration exploded after the 1994 passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement, which removed tariffs on American farm products imported into Mexico. As a result Mexican farmers could not compete with U.S agribusiness and were forced to find other ways to earn a living. (Dvorak 99) Due to lack of work and pressure to earn a living many were forced to find and alternate and quick way of living. Some chose local jobs, others legal immigration and for the desperate risking their own lives and safety for a better life illegal immigration. Illegal immigration was not always a common occurrence. Before 1960 the number of illegal immigrants entering the country was not well known and never emerged as a major issue (Dvorak 99). This connection proves that years ago illegal immigration was a mere spot on the United States map. Today however, the problem at hand is an ever growing issue. Not only is illegal immigration increasing but puts stress upon the American economy and job market. The effects of illegal immigration in the United States, as well as other countries, provides a vivid view about how illegal immigration effects economics and job market of the country in which illegal immigration takes place. Persons in the United States often talk about the millions without work, but in some cases â€Å"millions of illegals continue to flood into the  United States, competing for scarce U.S. jobs† (Katel). Due to increased competition illegal immigration causes legal citizens to start reaching out to their government and demanding things be done to solve the issue. Some citizens even go as far as to try and take the issue into their own hands. Illegal immigration does not only take away job opportunities but also governmental funds, which in turn is the peoples’ money. One must pay taxes in order to fund ones way of life. Illegals, although some do pay taxes, cause U.S. government funds to deplete. †¦an average low skill illegal immigrant household received $30,160 in direct benefits, means-tested benefits, education, and population-based services from all levels of government, while paying only $10, 573 in taxes. (Greenley) Taxes are a major contributing factor for the awareness of illegal immigration. Taxes are such a factor because the legal citizens pay into the government and receive things in return such as education, but the money is also given to those who do not pay for aid or not enough. Taxes and the job market are two major issues the United States faces, but the money the United States spends to combat and control the issues is also a major determining factor. â€Å"Last year 438,997 people were apprehended by the U.S. border Patrol in Tuscon sector for illegally entering the United States† (Nussbaum). The issue is not the fact of the apprehensions, but the money that is spent in order to apprehend. It is said that billions of dollars are spent annually keeping the issue at bay. In order continue, the war on immigration, the federal government and local government must work together. The federal government may spend the most counteracting illegal immigration, but things must be done at a state level as well as a local level. One major state that has seen some of the most seismic illegal activity is Arizona. Arizona â€Å"America’s most porous border is a 262-mile stretch, from the New Mexico state line to near Yuma† (Nussbaum). Illegal immigration causes the state to spend not only money but time and effort to clean up issues that have evolved from illegal immigration. Many are without jobs and with border crossing also causes drug issues. Without jobs people pay no taxes and rely on government aid. The U.S. battle with illegal immigration adds up, on average a single border state spends millions to defend against their border problems (Nussbaum). The States that participate in the war on illegal  immigration pay a hefty price for the safety and security of not only their citizens but the countries as well. There are many ways the citizens of the United States with the governments help can halt or drastically slow illegal immigration from happening at all. The United States was built upon immigration. The United States has one of the most diverse if not the most collaboration of people. â€Å"The United States accepts 200,000 immigrants legally each year, more than the rest of the world put together† (Katel). The immigrants excepted by the United States have gone through all the right criteria in order to become a U.S. citizen. Unlike illegals they have made a life fairly and promote good competition and add to The United States’ ever growing society. For those who come legally it is not just to put them through all of the work to become a citizen while illegals do none of the United States’ criteria to become a citizen. One of the best ways one can try to alter the odds in the United States favor of stopping illegal immigration is â€Å"ending birth right citizenship for children of illegal immigrants† (Greenley). In order for this to occur, congress and the people must vote upon what is to happen. By ending birthright citizenship causes less to leave Mexico. Another way one can try and put a stop to illegal immigration is â€Å"preventing the hiring of illegal immigrants† (Greenley). Possibilities open up, such as no green cards and less competition in the job market. Prevention of hiring illegals also causes less to come because many are in search of work but can no longer do so due to their illegal status. There are still many pending issues and problem solving tactics being thought of everyday but no one is certain what the outcome may be. Illegal immigration to this day is a growing problem, causing United States debt to rise and national controversy over the dispute of what to do about the issue. All countries around the world experience illegal immigration. Mexico may be the United States worst culprit; however Mexico is not the only country to have citizens crossing illegally across the border. The only certain idea is the uncertainty of the future between the United States and Mexico’s relations between immigration. Works Cited Dvorak, William. Five. Immigration in the United States. New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 2009. 360-398. Print. Greenley, Larry. How to Fix Illegal Immigration. new american 24.5 (2008): 15-18. SIRS. Web. 4 Sept. 2013. Katel, Peter. Illegal Immirgation. CQ Researcher 15 .17 (2005): 393-420. Print. Nussbaum, Paul. The Border Wars: Drawing Lines in the Sand. Philadelphia Inquirer 30 Apr. 2006, sec. A1+: n.p.. SIRS. Web. 4 Sept. 2013.

Comparisons and Contrasts of the Social Structures Essay Example for Free

Comparisons and Contrasts of the Social Structures Essay There are many comparisons and contrasts of the social structures and religious beliefs between West Africa and Europe from 700-1500 BCE. Some of these include that West Africa was mainly Islam and Europe was Catholic. Both West Africa and Europe had patriarchal societies. Both of these groups are very different but also have some similarities. West Africa was mainly Islam and Europe was Catholic. This is because West Africa was largely affected by sub Saharan trade. During this time period most of Europe was catholic although it was not as widespread as other religions. Both West Africa and Europe had patriarchal societies although in West Africa women had more influence and could actually govern people. The Muslims of Africa during this time period were typically much less strict about the roles of women than their Middle Eastern counterparts. In both Western Africa and Europe, people were born into leadership positions and higher classes. Instead of having elected officials, both of these societies have leaders that live in a royal family. In Europe the top of the social ladder are priests and in West Africa military leaders are the top of the social ladder. In Europe, the catholic religion is a main part of everyday life. The Pope elects many political leaders in European countries displaying the dominance of religion in this region. Many things about West Africa and Europe are similar, but as we can see they are also very different. This is evident in the fact that both regions are patriarchal and that West Africa was Islam and Europe is Catholic between 700-1500 BCE.

Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India

Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India INTRODUCTION Angiosperms or flowering plants (also called Angiospermae, Magnoliophyta, or Anthophyta) are the most diverse group of the plant kingdom, comprising of about 2,50,000 species in 350 families (Kenrick, 1999). Flowering plants are by far the most numerous, diverse, and â€Å"successful† extant plant group, containing well over 95% of all land plant species alive today (Simpson, 2006). Angiosperms are characterized by (i) seeds produced within a carpel with a stigmatic surface for pollen germination, (ii) a much reduced female gametophyte, consisting in most cases of just eight nuclei in seven cells; and (3) double fertilization, leading to the formation of a typically triploid nutritive tissue called endosperm (Judd et al., 2002). Several apomorphies distinguish the angiosperms from all other land plants: (1) the flower, usually with an associated perianth, (2) stamens with two lateral thecae, each composed of two microsporangia, (3) a reduced, 3-nucleate male gametophyte, (4) c arpels and fruit formation, (5) ovules with two integuments, (6) a reduced, 8-nucleate female gametophyte, (7) endosperm formation and (8) sieve tube members (Simpson, 2006). Some of these apomorphic features, which represent the product of a unique evolutionary event, have become further modified in particular lineages of angiosperms. Almost all angiosperms produce vessels in the xylem tissue, though this feature probably evolved within the group. Angiosperm phloem differs from that of all other plants in having sieve tube elements accompanied by one or more â€Å"companion cells† that are derived from the same mother cell. Flowering plants grow in virtually every habitable region and are dominant in some aquatic and most terrestrial ecosystems, the notable exception to the latter being coniferous forests. Angiosperms comprise the great bulk of our economically important plants, including our most valuable food crops. India with a geographical area of about 32, 87,263 sq km is the seventh largest and tenth industrialized country of the world. It is situated between 804 N to 3706 N latitude and 6807 E to 97025 E longitude. The longitudinal variation divides Indian subcontinent into four climatological zones, viz., equatorial, tropical, subtropical and warm temperate. The forest cover of the country have been estimated to be 6, 37,293 km2 (19.39% of the geographic area of the country) and includes dense forest (3, 77,358 km2), open forest (2, 55,064 km2) and mangrove (4,871 km2). India represents about 11% of world’s flora in just about 2.4% of total land mass. Out of the 25 biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ identified in the world (Myers, 1990), India has two, namely Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats. These hotspots posses majority of plant diversity in India. In terms of species diversity, approximately 45,000 plant species are found in India (Khoshoo, 1994, 1995; Sharma et al., 1997). The angiosperms are represented by c. 17,500 species out of which 5725 species are endemic to India. About 28% of the total Indian flora and about 33% of angiosperms occurring in India are endemic (Nayar, 1996). It is roughly estimated that about 10% of flowering plant species in India are threatened and 34 plant species have been reported to be extinct (Nayar and Sastry, 1987-1990). The studies on Indian plants were first initiated by the European visitors. Even before the publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus (1753), Hendrik Van Rheede (1678-1703) started publication of his monumental 12 volume work ‘Hortus Malabaricus’. However, actual work on Indian flora was initiated by Roxburgh (1814, 1820- 1824) and later by Hooker and Thompson (1855). The publication of Flora of British India by Sir J.D. Hooker (1872- 1897) gave a stimulus to taxonomic studies in our country and since then several regional and state floras have been published. In 1954, Botanical Survey of India was revived with a view to make intensive studies of local flora especially to gather precise information on the identity, floristic diversity, distribution, ecological association, phenology, medicinal and economic uses of plants. India is immensely rich in biological diversity. Such richness is largely due to varied physical environment, latitude, altitude, geology and climate. The climate and altitudinal variations coupled with varied ecological habitats have contributed in the development of immensely rich vegetation wealth, and varied flora and fauna forming a very unique biodiversity. Seeing the rich plant diversity, Hooker (1904) commented that ‘The Indian flora is more varied than that of any other country of equal area in the eastern hemisphere, if not on the globe’. The Indian flora represents taxa occurring in different countries including Afghanistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Indo-China. There are even the representatives from African, American, Australian and European countries. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Bio-geographical Territories in World The Indian region is one of the most diverse bio-geographic regions of the world having wide ranging topography from permanently snow covered high Himalayan ranges to plains at sea level, low lying swamps and mangroves, island systems, tropical evergreen rain forests, fertile alluvial plains, hot deserts and high altitude cold deserts. The climate ranges from tropical and sub-tropical in Indo-Gangetic plains and in the peninsular regions to temperate and arctic in the Himalayan region. Biogeographically India represents two of the major realms (Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three biomes. Considering the vastness of the country and variation pattern in different areas, the country is divided into ten botanical regions with distinct bioclimatic conditions. These include: Coromandal coast, Malabar, Indus plain, Indian desert, Gangetic plain, Assam, Eastern Himalaya, Central Himalaya, Western Himalaya, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep and minicoy group of islands (Mudgal and Hajra, 1997). India harbors very diverse climatic conditions and thus fosters different types of habitats. The major mountain ranges in India are the Himalaya and the Western Ghats. The Indian Himalayan region is spread over the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, and a part of Assam, along with eight districts of Uttarakhand and one district of West Bengal. Biogeographically, the Indian Himalayan region falls under Boreal Zone which has two sub-zones, viz., Sino-Siberian and Sino-Himalayan. The area can be divided into four distinct zones longitudinally: (i) the Siwalik (900 – 1500 m), (ii) the outer Himalaya (1500 – 3500 m), (iii) the middle or lesser Himalaya (3600 – 4600 m), and (iv) the Greater Himalaya (above 4,600 m). This complex mountain system consists of narrow and deep valleys, glaciers and fertile terrain. Five climatic zones can be delineated in the Himalayan region based on geographic and physiographic factors. These are: (1) Warm tropical, (2) Warm sub-tropical, (3) Cool temperate, (4) Alpine and (5) Arctic. While these are only broad zonations, there are many local variations in the climate due to precipitation, temperature, wind patterns, humidity etc. The type and nature of soils also vary vastly in the Himalayan region from deep alluvial to the thin and bare soils of the high mountains. The nature of the soil depends upon the rocks, the prevailing climatic conditions, topography and vegetation. According to Udvardy (1975), biodiversity exists on earth in 8 broad realms with 193 bio-geographical provinces. It has been estimated that world’s 12 countries Australia, Brazil, China, Columbia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru and Zaire together hold 70% of its total flowering plant diversity. These countries have been termed as â€Å"Megadiversity† countries (Mc Neely et al., 1990) Rodgers and Panwar (1990) have divided India into 10 phytogeographic zones and 24 biotic provinces. Gadgil and Meher-Homji (1990) have recognized 16 phytogeographical zones in India. On the other hand, Das (1996) has recognized 9 physiographic regions within the Indian Territory. Chowdhery and Murti (2000) have recognized 11 phytogeographic regions for India, each of which have its uniqueness in ecosystem, vegetation and floristic composition. These phytogeographic regions are: Western Himalaya, Eastern Himalaya, Gangetic plains, North East India, Semi arid and Arid regions, Deccan Plateau, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshdweep and Coastal regions. Distribution of Angiosperms in India In India, the vascular plants form the most dominant and conspicuous vegetation cover comprising of over 17,500 species of angiosperms which represents more than 7% of the worlds known flowering plant species (Hooker, 1872-1897; Karthikeyan et al., 1989; Sharma and Balakrishnan, 1993; Sharma and Sanjappa, 1993; Sharma et al., 1993; Hajra et al., 1995; Mudgal and Hajra 1997- 1999; Singh et al., 2000; Karthikeyan, 2000). These species are distributed in more than 4000 genera occurring in diffenent ecosystems from the humid tropics of Western Ghats to the Alpine zones of the Himalayas and from Mangrooves of tidal Sunderbans to the dry desert of Rajasthan. In India, dicots are represented by 2,282 genera and 12,750 species whereas monocots are represented by 702 genera and 4,250 species. Dicots account for c. 75% of flowering plants in terms of both genera and species. On the other hand, remaining 25% is contributed by monocots. Out of 511 recognized plant families (Brummit, 1992), 320 families with more than 4000 genera are represented in the Indian flora. Of which Poaceae is the largest family with about 263 genera and more than 1200 species. In India, over 60 families of flowering plants are monotypic, e.g., Illiciaceae, Ruppiaceae, Turneraceae, Tetracentraceae, etc. Asragaluts, Carex, Dendrobium, Ficus, Habenaria, Impatiens, Primula, Rhododendron, Saussurea, Taraxacum, etc. are some of the dominant genera of flowering plants in India. Out of the estimated 17,500 species of angiosperms, approximately 15% species are trees which include some of the highly valued timber species of the world and belong to the families like Annonaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Moraceae, Meliaceae, Verbenaceae, etc. There are several botanical curiosities like Aeginetia indica, Balanophora dioica, Boschiniackia himalaica, Drosera, Epipogium, Galeola, Mitrastemon yamamotoi, Monotropa, Nepenthes khasiana, Pinguicula, Sapria himalayana, Utricularia spp., etc. Species in certain groups like Orchids, Bamboos, Rhododendrons, Citrus, Hedychiums, Impatiens, Pedicularis, Primulas, etc. exhibit remarkable diversity in India (Rao, 1994). Dominant angiospermic families in India are given in table1 (after Groombridge, 1992; Sharma et al., 1997). Table 1. Dominant families of dicots and monocots Insectivorous and parasitic plants The carnivorous plants (insectivorous plants) trap and digest insects to meet the requirement of nitrogen deficiency. Altogether over 450 species of carnivorous plants have been reported of which approximately 30 species occur in India. The insectivorous taxa belong to family Droseraceae (3 spp.), Nepenthaceae (1 spcies) and Lentibulariaceae (36 spp.). The parasitic plant species are prominent in Loranthaceae (46 spp.), Santalaceae (10 spp.), Balanophoraceae (6 spp.), Rafflesiaceae (1 spp.), Cuscutaceae (12 spp.) and Orobanchaceae (54 spp.). Aquatic plants About 2 percent of all flowering plants known in the world inhabit water bodies and more than 50 percent of these are represented in Indian subcontinent (Lavania et al., 1990). Some important aquatic plants families are: Alismataceae (8 spp.), Aponogetonaceae (6 spp.), Azollaceae (1 sp.), Barclayaceae (2 spp.), Butomaceae (1 sp.), Cabombaceae (2 spp.), Callitrichaceae (3 species), Isoetaceae (10 spp.), Lemnaceae (14 spp.), Najadaceae (7 spp.), Nelumbonaceae (1 sp.), Nymphaeaceae (7 spp.), Podostemaceae (24 spp.), Pontederiaceae (13 spp.), Ceratophyllaceae (3 spp.), Hydrocharitaceae (13 spp.), Potamogetonaceae (18 spp.), Ruppiaceae (1 sp.), Salviniaceae (3 spp.), Trapaceae (2 spp.), Typhaceae (4 spp.), Zannichelliaceae (1 sp.), etc. The members of families Podostemaceae and Tristichaceae grow on rocks under water in fast flowing streams. The aquatic plants in India are highly diversified comprising free-floating forms (Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna perpusila, Nymphoides hydrophylla, Trapa natans var. bispinosa, Pistia stratiotes, Wolffia microscopia, W. globosa), rooted aquatics with their foliage floating (Nymphaea nouchali, N. stellata, Euryale ferox, Nelumbo nucifera), submerged aquatics (Vallisnaria natans, Hydrilla verticillata, Najas graminea, Potamogeton pectinatus) emergent aquatics (Scirpus maritimus, Cyperus articulates, Sagittaria trifolia, S. guayanensis subsp. leppula) and marsh plants (Ranunculus scleratus, Hydrolea zeylanica, Panicum paludosum, Polygonum barbatum, P. glabrum). The aquatic flora play an important role as water purifier by absorbing heavy metals, e.g. Ceratophyllum demersum (chromium), Bacopa monnieri (copper and cadmium). Limosella aquatica, Hippuris vulgaris occur in subalpine-alpine lakes. Mangroves Mangroves are the plants that inhabit coastal regions and estuaries. They are adapted to survive under marshy conditions. In India, mangroves cover an area of approximately 6700 Km ² which constitutes c. 7 percent of the world’s mangroves. The largest stretch of mangroves in India occurs in Sunderbans (West Bengal) which covers an area of about 4200 km ². It has been designated as World Heritage site of which 80% of them are restricted to Sunderbans (West Bengal) and Andaman Nicobar islands (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000). The remaining taxa are scattered in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa and Karnataka. Some of the dominant mangrove species include Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops tagal, Heritiera fomes, Lumnitzera spp., Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, R. stylosa, Sonneratia spp., Xylocarpus spp., etc. The shrubby Aegialitis rotundifolia and Acanthus ilicifolius are common o n poor saline plains. The herbaceous succulent halophytes are represented by Aegiceras corniculatus, Suaeda brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Salicornia brachiata. The characteristic mangrove palms are: Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa. Indicator species Some species of angiosperms growing on metalliferous soils accumulate large amounts of metals in their roots and reflect the levels of metal present in the soil (indicators). For example, presence of copper is indicated by Astragalus spp., Croton roxburghii, Hyptis suaveolens, Holarrhena pubescens, Impatiens balsamina, Vernonia cinerea, and indicates presence of Uranium (Aery, 1977; Venkatesh, 1964, 1966). Diversification of Primitive and Advanced Families The primitive families are confined to those regions which are very old in geological time scale in comparison to the newly developed areas. Assam, North-east Indian region and Deccan Peninsula are older in comparison to the other phytogeographical regions of India. These regions are more or less identical in age with Sri Lanka, South West Chinese region and Malay Peninsula. The Deccan Peninsula shows its floristic relationship with Sri Lanka and Malay provinces, while the North east India shows its floristic relationship with Myanmar, South West Chinese Provinces and Malay Peninsula. Thus the Malay region shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula on one hand and North east India on the other. By this way the North East India shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula to some extent (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). India (Eastern Himalaya including North east India) is considered as a sanctuary of primitive flowering plants. The occurrence of such a large number of primitive angiosperms led Takhtajan (1969) to designate this region as the ‘Cradle of Flowering Plants’ where angiosperms have diversified (Table 2) Table.2. Primitive flowering plants occurring in India (after Rao, 1994) The advanced families occur in those areas which are comparatively very young in the geological time scale. On the basis of this idea it can be stated that the Himalayan region of India is very young in its age as compared to Deccan Peninsula and North East Indian regions of India, as it harbours most of the advanced families with well diversified restricted genera and species. A comparative account of diversification of primitive and advanced families of India and its adjoining area is given in table 3. The advanced families are young in their age and also they are confined to the areas which are also geologically young, they are unable to spread in the wider regions. On the other hand, primitive plant families are older in their age and also found to confined in those areas which are geologically very old. So they get sufficient time to spread over larger areas, as a result of which the primitive families show less number of restricted genera and species in their credit in comparison to the advanced families (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). Habitats Different ecological habitats occur in India ranging from tropical rainforest, subtropical savanna or shrublands, temperate forest, alpine mosses to xerophytic variation of desert. The habitat types vary from the humid tropical Western Ghats to the hot deserts of Rajasthan, from cold deserts of Ladakh to the long, warm cost line stretches of peninsular India. While Cherrapunji and Mawphlong in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya are the two wettest places on earth, Dras in Ladakh is the coldest inhabited place of the world. Phytogeographically, the eastern Himalaya forms a distinct floristic region. The area comprises Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring states of northern India along a continuous sector of the Yunnan province in south-west China. In Nepal, there are around 7000 plant species, many of which overlap those of India, Bhutan and even Yunnan. Of these species, at least 500 (almost 8%) are believed to be endemic to Nepal. Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15%) are considered to be endemic to the eastern Himalaya (Anonymous 1999). This region is the meeting ground of the Indo-Malayan, Afro-tropic and Indo-Chinese biogeographical realms as well as the Himalayan and Peninsular Indian elements, formed when the peninsular plate struck against the Asian landmass, after it broke off from Gondwana land. The region is recognized as refugium of flowering plants and center of active speciation (Rao, 1994). The numerous primitive angiosperm families found in this region inclu de Degeneriaceae, Eupomatiaceae, Himantandraceae, Lardizalbalaceae, Magnoliaceae, Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, Winteraceae. The primitive genera are Alnus, Aspidocarya, Betula, Decaisnea, Euptelea, Exbucklandia, Haematocarpus, Holboellia, Houttuynia, Magnolia, Mangelietia, Pycnarrhena, and Tetracentrol (Malhotra and Hajra 1977). Regions of High Diversity India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world. It represents an example of conglomeration of diverse bioclimates influenced by neighbouring areas (particularly Mediterranean), the unique location, peninsular land mass, Gangetic plains and the crown of complex chain of mountain systems – the Himalaya. The Himalayan region with only 18% of India’s land area, houses 81.4% of the country’s stock of gymnosperms, 47% of angiosperms, 59.5% of lichens, 58.7% of pteridophytes, 43.9% of bryophytes and 53.07% of fungi found in India. Orchidaceae with over 1331 taxa (S. Misra, 2007) is one of the dominant families and probably the second largest among all families of flowering plant known from India. Of these 407 taxa are endemic to India. Out of the 18 monotypic orchid genera of India, 13 are found in the Himalayan region. In the Eastern Himalaya, the Orchid family is the largest, with 60% species, whereas in the Western Himalaya, Asteraceae with 540 species is the largest family followed by Poaceae with 439 species and Fabaceae with 362 species. Carex with more than 100 species and infraspecific categories is the largest genus in the Himalaya. Rhododendron with 96 species and infra-specific categories, and Astragalus with 90 species, is the largest genera in the Eastern and Western Himalaya, respectively. Some other plants with pronounced diversity in the Eastern Himalaya include the Hedychium (Zingiberaceae) with 18 species out of 35 Indian species, and numerous species of bamboos. The Eastern Himalaya is a cradle of numerous primitive angiosperms, such as Manglietia and Euptelea (Magnoliaceae) and Tetracentron (Tetracentraceae). Christollea himalayensis, recorded from Mt. Camet is the flowering plant occurring at the highest altitude (6300 msl). Arceuthobium minutissimum, (small angiosperm) grows on Himalayan conifers. Apart from these botanical curios, the Himalayan region has a rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants. The floristic richness has also rendered the North-Eastern region and Western Ghats to be recognized as two hotspots among 25 hotspots identified throughout the world. The humid tropical conditions met within these regions not only support exceptionally diverse vegetation but have also resulted in speciation in several genera, thus adding to the high endemicity of the flora (Nayar, 1996). In addition to these two, there are about 40 other sites in different phytogeographical zones of India which have high degree of endemism and genetic diversity. Mc Neely et al. (1990) estimated that 70% of worlds total flowering plants occur in 12 countries and these have been designated as Mega diversity centres or mega ­biodiversity country. The earth’s 25 biodiversity hotspot regions collectively cover about 2% of the planet’s land surface, yet claim more than 50% of all terrestrial species diversity. They have within them a phenomenal 1, 25,635 plant species. The top 11 hotspots (out of 25) for plant endemism harbor 5000 or more species as endemics. It accounts for 93,214 plant species, or 37.3% of the total global plant endemics (Myers 1988). Western Ghats The Western Ghats, which covers an area of approximately 1, 60,000 Km ², are among the 25 biodiversity hotspots globally identified. The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats, coupled with the regions complex geography, produces a great variety of vegetation types. These include scrub forests in the low-lying rain shadow areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests up to about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of montane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 meters. Based on the ecological factors and floristic composition, four major forests and 23 floristic types have been identified. Eastern Himalaya Eastern Himalaya covering the states of Sikkim, Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland is the richest of the phytogeographic regions of India affording the highest plant/ animal diversity (Rao, 1994). This region is characterized by high rainfall and humidity. The abundant rains and high humidity contribute the occurrence of largest number of species in this region. North eastern region of India, blessed with wide range of physiography and ecoclimatic conditions, is the richest biodiversity centres of the Indian subcontinent (Hooker and Thompson, 1855; Hooker, 1905; Chatterjee, 1962; Rao, 1974). The north eastern India has a geographical area of about 2, 55,050 Km ². The rich plant wealth of this region has been reported by Hooker (1854). Further, Hooker’s work on â€Å"Flora of British India† (1872-97) and â€Å"Sketches on Flora of British India† (1905), presents a very detailed account on vegetation and flora of this region. Kanjilal et al. (1934-1940), in their â€Å"Flora of Assam† have provided a detailed account with emphasis on woody flora of this region. There are works on â€Å"Forest flora of Meghalaya† by Haridasan and Rao (1985, 1987) and â€Å"Grasses of North eastern India† by Shukla (1996). There are several genera endemic to Eastern Himalaya. Some important endemic genera are Aucuba, Bryocarpum, Pleurospermopsis, Gamblea, Lepidostemon, Parajaeschkaea, Paroxygraphis, Risleya, Sphaerosacme, Treutlera and Brachycaulos. Cyathopus is endemic to Sikkim. Some genera like Biswarea, Hymenandra, Jejosephia, Neoluffa, Pauia, etc. are endemic to North eastern India. Some important Eastern Himalayan endemic species are Abies densa, Agapetes incurvata, A. sikkimensis, Dipsacus atratus, Eriobotrya hookeriana, Geum macrosepalum, Larix griffithiana, Lindera heterophylla, Liparis perpusilla, Lloydia flavonutans, Maddenia himalica, Meconopsis grandis, M. superba, M. villosa, Myricaria albiflora, Primula whitei, Rhododendron baileyi, R. camelliaeflorum, R. ciliatum, R. glaucophyllum, R. grande, R. lantanum, R. lindleyi, R. wallichii, R .wightii, Rubus fragarioides, Sassurea conica, Acanthus leucostachys, Aconitum assamicum, Anoectochilus sikkimensis, Aeschynanthus parasiticus, Baliospermum micranthum, Berberis dasyclada, Calamus leptospadix, Calanthe densiflora, Capparis acutifolia, Cotoneaster assamensis, etc. (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000) Plant Diversity in Western Himalaya The Western Himalayan region is one of the 12 biogeographic regions of India and includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal. This region constitutes the alpine zone, temperate, humid and warm climatic conditions. The main portion of Western Himalaya lies in J K state comprising 67.5 Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India INTRODUCTION Angiosperms or flowering plants (also called Angiospermae, Magnoliophyta, or Anthophyta) are the most diverse group of the plant kingdom, comprising of about 2,50,000 species in 350 families (Kenrick, 1999). Flowering plants are by far the most numerous, diverse, and â€Å"successful† extant plant group, containing well over 95% of all land plant species alive today (Simpson, 2006). Angiosperms are characterized by (i) seeds produced within a carpel with a stigmatic surface for pollen germination, (ii) a much reduced female gametophyte, consisting in most cases of just eight nuclei in seven cells; and (3) double fertilization, leading to the formation of a typically triploid nutritive tissue called endosperm (Judd et al., 2002). Several apomorphies distinguish the angiosperms from all other land plants: (1) the flower, usually with an associated perianth, (2) stamens with two lateral thecae, each composed of two microsporangia, (3) a reduced, 3-nucleate male gametophyte, (4) c arpels and fruit formation, (5) ovules with two integuments, (6) a reduced, 8-nucleate female gametophyte, (7) endosperm formation and (8) sieve tube members (Simpson, 2006). Some of these apomorphic features, which represent the product of a unique evolutionary event, have become further modified in particular lineages of angiosperms. Almost all angiosperms produce vessels in the xylem tissue, though this feature probably evolved within the group. Angiosperm phloem differs from that of all other plants in having sieve tube elements accompanied by one or more â€Å"companion cells† that are derived from the same mother cell. Flowering plants grow in virtually every habitable region and are dominant in some aquatic and most terrestrial ecosystems, the notable exception to the latter being coniferous forests. Angiosperms comprise the great bulk of our economically important plants, including our most valuable food crops. India with a geographical area of about 32, 87,263 sq km is the seventh largest and tenth industrialized country of the world. It is situated between 804 N to 3706 N latitude and 6807 E to 97025 E longitude. The longitudinal variation divides Indian subcontinent into four climatological zones, viz., equatorial, tropical, subtropical and warm temperate. The forest cover of the country have been estimated to be 6, 37,293 km2 (19.39% of the geographic area of the country) and includes dense forest (3, 77,358 km2), open forest (2, 55,064 km2) and mangrove (4,871 km2). India represents about 11% of world’s flora in just about 2.4% of total land mass. Out of the 25 biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ identified in the world (Myers, 1990), India has two, namely Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats. These hotspots posses majority of plant diversity in India. In terms of species diversity, approximately 45,000 plant species are found in India (Khoshoo, 1994, 1995; Sharma et al., 1997). The angiosperms are represented by c. 17,500 species out of which 5725 species are endemic to India. About 28% of the total Indian flora and about 33% of angiosperms occurring in India are endemic (Nayar, 1996). It is roughly estimated that about 10% of flowering plant species in India are threatened and 34 plant species have been reported to be extinct (Nayar and Sastry, 1987-1990). The studies on Indian plants were first initiated by the European visitors. Even before the publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus (1753), Hendrik Van Rheede (1678-1703) started publication of his monumental 12 volume work ‘Hortus Malabaricus’. However, actual work on Indian flora was initiated by Roxburgh (1814, 1820- 1824) and later by Hooker and Thompson (1855). The publication of Flora of British India by Sir J.D. Hooker (1872- 1897) gave a stimulus to taxonomic studies in our country and since then several regional and state floras have been published. In 1954, Botanical Survey of India was revived with a view to make intensive studies of local flora especially to gather precise information on the identity, floristic diversity, distribution, ecological association, phenology, medicinal and economic uses of plants. India is immensely rich in biological diversity. Such richness is largely due to varied physical environment, latitude, altitude, geology and climate. The climate and altitudinal variations coupled with varied ecological habitats have contributed in the development of immensely rich vegetation wealth, and varied flora and fauna forming a very unique biodiversity. Seeing the rich plant diversity, Hooker (1904) commented that ‘The Indian flora is more varied than that of any other country of equal area in the eastern hemisphere, if not on the globe’. The Indian flora represents taxa occurring in different countries including Afghanistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Indo-China. There are even the representatives from African, American, Australian and European countries. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Bio-geographical Territories in World The Indian region is one of the most diverse bio-geographic regions of the world having wide ranging topography from permanently snow covered high Himalayan ranges to plains at sea level, low lying swamps and mangroves, island systems, tropical evergreen rain forests, fertile alluvial plains, hot deserts and high altitude cold deserts. The climate ranges from tropical and sub-tropical in Indo-Gangetic plains and in the peninsular regions to temperate and arctic in the Himalayan region. Biogeographically India represents two of the major realms (Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three biomes. Considering the vastness of the country and variation pattern in different areas, the country is divided into ten botanical regions with distinct bioclimatic conditions. These include: Coromandal coast, Malabar, Indus plain, Indian desert, Gangetic plain, Assam, Eastern Himalaya, Central Himalaya, Western Himalaya, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep and minicoy group of islands (Mudgal and Hajra, 1997). India harbors very diverse climatic conditions and thus fosters different types of habitats. The major mountain ranges in India are the Himalaya and the Western Ghats. The Indian Himalayan region is spread over the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, and a part of Assam, along with eight districts of Uttarakhand and one district of West Bengal. Biogeographically, the Indian Himalayan region falls under Boreal Zone which has two sub-zones, viz., Sino-Siberian and Sino-Himalayan. The area can be divided into four distinct zones longitudinally: (i) the Siwalik (900 – 1500 m), (ii) the outer Himalaya (1500 – 3500 m), (iii) the middle or lesser Himalaya (3600 – 4600 m), and (iv) the Greater Himalaya (above 4,600 m). This complex mountain system consists of narrow and deep valleys, glaciers and fertile terrain. Five climatic zones can be delineated in the Himalayan region based on geographic and physiographic factors. These are: (1) Warm tropical, (2) Warm sub-tropical, (3) Cool temperate, (4) Alpine and (5) Arctic. While these are only broad zonations, there are many local variations in the climate due to precipitation, temperature, wind patterns, humidity etc. The type and nature of soils also vary vastly in the Himalayan region from deep alluvial to the thin and bare soils of the high mountains. The nature of the soil depends upon the rocks, the prevailing climatic conditions, topography and vegetation. According to Udvardy (1975), biodiversity exists on earth in 8 broad realms with 193 bio-geographical provinces. It has been estimated that world’s 12 countries Australia, Brazil, China, Columbia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru and Zaire together hold 70% of its total flowering plant diversity. These countries have been termed as â€Å"Megadiversity† countries (Mc Neely et al., 1990) Rodgers and Panwar (1990) have divided India into 10 phytogeographic zones and 24 biotic provinces. Gadgil and Meher-Homji (1990) have recognized 16 phytogeographical zones in India. On the other hand, Das (1996) has recognized 9 physiographic regions within the Indian Territory. Chowdhery and Murti (2000) have recognized 11 phytogeographic regions for India, each of which have its uniqueness in ecosystem, vegetation and floristic composition. These phytogeographic regions are: Western Himalaya, Eastern Himalaya, Gangetic plains, North East India, Semi arid and Arid regions, Deccan Plateau, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshdweep and Coastal regions. Distribution of Angiosperms in India In India, the vascular plants form the most dominant and conspicuous vegetation cover comprising of over 17,500 species of angiosperms which represents more than 7% of the worlds known flowering plant species (Hooker, 1872-1897; Karthikeyan et al., 1989; Sharma and Balakrishnan, 1993; Sharma and Sanjappa, 1993; Sharma et al., 1993; Hajra et al., 1995; Mudgal and Hajra 1997- 1999; Singh et al., 2000; Karthikeyan, 2000). These species are distributed in more than 4000 genera occurring in diffenent ecosystems from the humid tropics of Western Ghats to the Alpine zones of the Himalayas and from Mangrooves of tidal Sunderbans to the dry desert of Rajasthan. In India, dicots are represented by 2,282 genera and 12,750 species whereas monocots are represented by 702 genera and 4,250 species. Dicots account for c. 75% of flowering plants in terms of both genera and species. On the other hand, remaining 25% is contributed by monocots. Out of 511 recognized plant families (Brummit, 1992), 320 families with more than 4000 genera are represented in the Indian flora. Of which Poaceae is the largest family with about 263 genera and more than 1200 species. In India, over 60 families of flowering plants are monotypic, e.g., Illiciaceae, Ruppiaceae, Turneraceae, Tetracentraceae, etc. Asragaluts, Carex, Dendrobium, Ficus, Habenaria, Impatiens, Primula, Rhododendron, Saussurea, Taraxacum, etc. are some of the dominant genera of flowering plants in India. Out of the estimated 17,500 species of angiosperms, approximately 15% species are trees which include some of the highly valued timber species of the world and belong to the families like Annonaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Moraceae, Meliaceae, Verbenaceae, etc. There are several botanical curiosities like Aeginetia indica, Balanophora dioica, Boschiniackia himalaica, Drosera, Epipogium, Galeola, Mitrastemon yamamotoi, Monotropa, Nepenthes khasiana, Pinguicula, Sapria himalayana, Utricularia spp., etc. Species in certain groups like Orchids, Bamboos, Rhododendrons, Citrus, Hedychiums, Impatiens, Pedicularis, Primulas, etc. exhibit remarkable diversity in India (Rao, 1994). Dominant angiospermic families in India are given in table1 (after Groombridge, 1992; Sharma et al., 1997). Table 1. Dominant families of dicots and monocots Insectivorous and parasitic plants The carnivorous plants (insectivorous plants) trap and digest insects to meet the requirement of nitrogen deficiency. Altogether over 450 species of carnivorous plants have been reported of which approximately 30 species occur in India. The insectivorous taxa belong to family Droseraceae (3 spp.), Nepenthaceae (1 spcies) and Lentibulariaceae (36 spp.). The parasitic plant species are prominent in Loranthaceae (46 spp.), Santalaceae (10 spp.), Balanophoraceae (6 spp.), Rafflesiaceae (1 spp.), Cuscutaceae (12 spp.) and Orobanchaceae (54 spp.). Aquatic plants About 2 percent of all flowering plants known in the world inhabit water bodies and more than 50 percent of these are represented in Indian subcontinent (Lavania et al., 1990). Some important aquatic plants families are: Alismataceae (8 spp.), Aponogetonaceae (6 spp.), Azollaceae (1 sp.), Barclayaceae (2 spp.), Butomaceae (1 sp.), Cabombaceae (2 spp.), Callitrichaceae (3 species), Isoetaceae (10 spp.), Lemnaceae (14 spp.), Najadaceae (7 spp.), Nelumbonaceae (1 sp.), Nymphaeaceae (7 spp.), Podostemaceae (24 spp.), Pontederiaceae (13 spp.), Ceratophyllaceae (3 spp.), Hydrocharitaceae (13 spp.), Potamogetonaceae (18 spp.), Ruppiaceae (1 sp.), Salviniaceae (3 spp.), Trapaceae (2 spp.), Typhaceae (4 spp.), Zannichelliaceae (1 sp.), etc. The members of families Podostemaceae and Tristichaceae grow on rocks under water in fast flowing streams. The aquatic plants in India are highly diversified comprising free-floating forms (Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna perpusila, Nymphoides hydrophylla, Trapa natans var. bispinosa, Pistia stratiotes, Wolffia microscopia, W. globosa), rooted aquatics with their foliage floating (Nymphaea nouchali, N. stellata, Euryale ferox, Nelumbo nucifera), submerged aquatics (Vallisnaria natans, Hydrilla verticillata, Najas graminea, Potamogeton pectinatus) emergent aquatics (Scirpus maritimus, Cyperus articulates, Sagittaria trifolia, S. guayanensis subsp. leppula) and marsh plants (Ranunculus scleratus, Hydrolea zeylanica, Panicum paludosum, Polygonum barbatum, P. glabrum). The aquatic flora play an important role as water purifier by absorbing heavy metals, e.g. Ceratophyllum demersum (chromium), Bacopa monnieri (copper and cadmium). Limosella aquatica, Hippuris vulgaris occur in subalpine-alpine lakes. Mangroves Mangroves are the plants that inhabit coastal regions and estuaries. They are adapted to survive under marshy conditions. In India, mangroves cover an area of approximately 6700 Km ² which constitutes c. 7 percent of the world’s mangroves. The largest stretch of mangroves in India occurs in Sunderbans (West Bengal) which covers an area of about 4200 km ². It has been designated as World Heritage site of which 80% of them are restricted to Sunderbans (West Bengal) and Andaman Nicobar islands (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000). The remaining taxa are scattered in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa and Karnataka. Some of the dominant mangrove species include Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops tagal, Heritiera fomes, Lumnitzera spp., Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, R. stylosa, Sonneratia spp., Xylocarpus spp., etc. The shrubby Aegialitis rotundifolia and Acanthus ilicifolius are common o n poor saline plains. The herbaceous succulent halophytes are represented by Aegiceras corniculatus, Suaeda brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Salicornia brachiata. The characteristic mangrove palms are: Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa. Indicator species Some species of angiosperms growing on metalliferous soils accumulate large amounts of metals in their roots and reflect the levels of metal present in the soil (indicators). For example, presence of copper is indicated by Astragalus spp., Croton roxburghii, Hyptis suaveolens, Holarrhena pubescens, Impatiens balsamina, Vernonia cinerea, and indicates presence of Uranium (Aery, 1977; Venkatesh, 1964, 1966). Diversification of Primitive and Advanced Families The primitive families are confined to those regions which are very old in geological time scale in comparison to the newly developed areas. Assam, North-east Indian region and Deccan Peninsula are older in comparison to the other phytogeographical regions of India. These regions are more or less identical in age with Sri Lanka, South West Chinese region and Malay Peninsula. The Deccan Peninsula shows its floristic relationship with Sri Lanka and Malay provinces, while the North east India shows its floristic relationship with Myanmar, South West Chinese Provinces and Malay Peninsula. Thus the Malay region shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula on one hand and North east India on the other. By this way the North East India shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula to some extent (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). India (Eastern Himalaya including North east India) is considered as a sanctuary of primitive flowering plants. The occurrence of such a large number of primitive angiosperms led Takhtajan (1969) to designate this region as the ‘Cradle of Flowering Plants’ where angiosperms have diversified (Table 2) Table.2. Primitive flowering plants occurring in India (after Rao, 1994) The advanced families occur in those areas which are comparatively very young in the geological time scale. On the basis of this idea it can be stated that the Himalayan region of India is very young in its age as compared to Deccan Peninsula and North East Indian regions of India, as it harbours most of the advanced families with well diversified restricted genera and species. A comparative account of diversification of primitive and advanced families of India and its adjoining area is given in table 3. The advanced families are young in their age and also they are confined to the areas which are also geologically young, they are unable to spread in the wider regions. On the other hand, primitive plant families are older in their age and also found to confined in those areas which are geologically very old. So they get sufficient time to spread over larger areas, as a result of which the primitive families show less number of restricted genera and species in their credit in comparison to the advanced families (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). Habitats Different ecological habitats occur in India ranging from tropical rainforest, subtropical savanna or shrublands, temperate forest, alpine mosses to xerophytic variation of desert. The habitat types vary from the humid tropical Western Ghats to the hot deserts of Rajasthan, from cold deserts of Ladakh to the long, warm cost line stretches of peninsular India. While Cherrapunji and Mawphlong in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya are the two wettest places on earth, Dras in Ladakh is the coldest inhabited place of the world. Phytogeographically, the eastern Himalaya forms a distinct floristic region. The area comprises Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring states of northern India along a continuous sector of the Yunnan province in south-west China. In Nepal, there are around 7000 plant species, many of which overlap those of India, Bhutan and even Yunnan. Of these species, at least 500 (almost 8%) are believed to be endemic to Nepal. Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15%) are considered to be endemic to the eastern Himalaya (Anonymous 1999). This region is the meeting ground of the Indo-Malayan, Afro-tropic and Indo-Chinese biogeographical realms as well as the Himalayan and Peninsular Indian elements, formed when the peninsular plate struck against the Asian landmass, after it broke off from Gondwana land. The region is recognized as refugium of flowering plants and center of active speciation (Rao, 1994). The numerous primitive angiosperm families found in this region inclu de Degeneriaceae, Eupomatiaceae, Himantandraceae, Lardizalbalaceae, Magnoliaceae, Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, Winteraceae. The primitive genera are Alnus, Aspidocarya, Betula, Decaisnea, Euptelea, Exbucklandia, Haematocarpus, Holboellia, Houttuynia, Magnolia, Mangelietia, Pycnarrhena, and Tetracentrol (Malhotra and Hajra 1977). Regions of High Diversity India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world. It represents an example of conglomeration of diverse bioclimates influenced by neighbouring areas (particularly Mediterranean), the unique location, peninsular land mass, Gangetic plains and the crown of complex chain of mountain systems – the Himalaya. The Himalayan region with only 18% of India’s land area, houses 81.4% of the country’s stock of gymnosperms, 47% of angiosperms, 59.5% of lichens, 58.7% of pteridophytes, 43.9% of bryophytes and 53.07% of fungi found in India. Orchidaceae with over 1331 taxa (S. Misra, 2007) is one of the dominant families and probably the second largest among all families of flowering plant known from India. Of these 407 taxa are endemic to India. Out of the 18 monotypic orchid genera of India, 13 are found in the Himalayan region. In the Eastern Himalaya, the Orchid family is the largest, with 60% species, whereas in the Western Himalaya, Asteraceae with 540 species is the largest family followed by Poaceae with 439 species and Fabaceae with 362 species. Carex with more than 100 species and infraspecific categories is the largest genus in the Himalaya. Rhododendron with 96 species and infra-specific categories, and Astragalus with 90 species, is the largest genera in the Eastern and Western Himalaya, respectively. Some other plants with pronounced diversity in the Eastern Himalaya include the Hedychium (Zingiberaceae) with 18 species out of 35 Indian species, and numerous species of bamboos. The Eastern Himalaya is a cradle of numerous primitive angiosperms, such as Manglietia and Euptelea (Magnoliaceae) and Tetracentron (Tetracentraceae). Christollea himalayensis, recorded from Mt. Camet is the flowering plant occurring at the highest altitude (6300 msl). Arceuthobium minutissimum, (small angiosperm) grows on Himalayan conifers. Apart from these botanical curios, the Himalayan region has a rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants. The floristic richness has also rendered the North-Eastern region and Western Ghats to be recognized as two hotspots among 25 hotspots identified throughout the world. The humid tropical conditions met within these regions not only support exceptionally diverse vegetation but have also resulted in speciation in several genera, thus adding to the high endemicity of the flora (Nayar, 1996). In addition to these two, there are about 40 other sites in different phytogeographical zones of India which have high degree of endemism and genetic diversity. Mc Neely et al. (1990) estimated that 70% of worlds total flowering plants occur in 12 countries and these have been designated as Mega diversity centres or mega ­biodiversity country. The earth’s 25 biodiversity hotspot regions collectively cover about 2% of the planet’s land surface, yet claim more than 50% of all terrestrial species diversity. They have within them a phenomenal 1, 25,635 plant species. The top 11 hotspots (out of 25) for plant endemism harbor 5000 or more species as endemics. It accounts for 93,214 plant species, or 37.3% of the total global plant endemics (Myers 1988). Western Ghats The Western Ghats, which covers an area of approximately 1, 60,000 Km ², are among the 25 biodiversity hotspots globally identified. The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats, coupled with the regions complex geography, produces a great variety of vegetation types. These include scrub forests in the low-lying rain shadow areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests up to about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of montane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 meters. Based on the ecological factors and floristic composition, four major forests and 23 floristic types have been identified. Eastern Himalaya Eastern Himalaya covering the states of Sikkim, Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland is the richest of the phytogeographic regions of India affording the highest plant/ animal diversity (Rao, 1994). This region is characterized by high rainfall and humidity. The abundant rains and high humidity contribute the occurrence of largest number of species in this region. North eastern region of India, blessed with wide range of physiography and ecoclimatic conditions, is the richest biodiversity centres of the Indian subcontinent (Hooker and Thompson, 1855; Hooker, 1905; Chatterjee, 1962; Rao, 1974). The north eastern India has a geographical area of about 2, 55,050 Km ². The rich plant wealth of this region has been reported by Hooker (1854). Further, Hooker’s work on â€Å"Flora of British India† (1872-97) and â€Å"Sketches on Flora of British India† (1905), presents a very detailed account on vegetation and flora of this region. Kanjilal et al. (1934-1940), in their â€Å"Flora of Assam† have provided a detailed account with emphasis on woody flora of this region. There are works on â€Å"Forest flora of Meghalaya† by Haridasan and Rao (1985, 1987) and â€Å"Grasses of North eastern India† by Shukla (1996). There are several genera endemic to Eastern Himalaya. Some important endemic genera are Aucuba, Bryocarpum, Pleurospermopsis, Gamblea, Lepidostemon, Parajaeschkaea, Paroxygraphis, Risleya, Sphaerosacme, Treutlera and Brachycaulos. Cyathopus is endemic to Sikkim. Some genera like Biswarea, Hymenandra, Jejosephia, Neoluffa, Pauia, etc. are endemic to North eastern India. Some important Eastern Himalayan endemic species are Abies densa, Agapetes incurvata, A. sikkimensis, Dipsacus atratus, Eriobotrya hookeriana, Geum macrosepalum, Larix griffithiana, Lindera heterophylla, Liparis perpusilla, Lloydia flavonutans, Maddenia himalica, Meconopsis grandis, M. superba, M. villosa, Myricaria albiflora, Primula whitei, Rhododendron baileyi, R. camelliaeflorum, R. ciliatum, R. glaucophyllum, R. grande, R. lantanum, R. lindleyi, R. wallichii, R .wightii, Rubus fragarioides, Sassurea conica, Acanthus leucostachys, Aconitum assamicum, Anoectochilus sikkimensis, Aeschynanthus parasiticus, Baliospermum micranthum, Berberis dasyclada, Calamus leptospadix, Calanthe densiflora, Capparis acutifolia, Cotoneaster assamensis, etc. (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000) Plant Diversity in Western Himalaya The Western Himalayan region is one of the 12 biogeographic regions of India and includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal. This region constitutes the alpine zone, temperate, humid and warm climatic conditions. The main portion of Western Himalaya lies in J K state comprising 67.5

Frankenstein Essays -- Literary Analysis, Mary Shelley

â€Å"I am alone and miserable: man will not associate with me; but one as deformed and horrible as myself would not deny herself to me† (Shelley 127). A monster with bad intentions generates a bad reputation in society. However, does a monster whose sole purpose is to achieve and excel treated wrongly because of the way he looks? According to John Bugg’s â€Å"Master of their language: Education and Exile† The creature’s narrative of education unfolds from a personal realization of alterity. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein portrays the creature’s motivation to broaden his education in order to be accepted by society. Despite the creature’s good intentions to broaden his education, his physical appearance disallows him to obtain an education, and therefore the only residual is to seek revenge on his creator. Naturally the creature believes that if he is well educated, people will look beyond his hideous appearance and accept him. Through the inspiration the De Laceys give, â€Å" The creature comes to view the De Laceys as superior beings, who would be the arbiters of [his] future destiny† (Shelley 90). Consequently the creature comes to the realization that the De Laceys are the only people who might be able to broaden his education. Hence he plans on visiting the old blind man because he will not be able to judge the creature by his appearance. In The creature will confront the old man when the rest of the De Laceys are out so he can create a friendship. The creature contemplates his future and he is â€Å"Longing to be accepted into the world he sees and romances through the crack in the De Laceys wall, the creature believes that literacy is the key† (Bugg 661). The creature knows that no one will be able to look past his appearance if he’s not e... ...nsible for what the creature has become. The creature responds,â€Å" You can blast my other passions, but revenge remains-revenge, henceforth dearer than light of food! I may die, but first you, my tyrant and tormentor, shall curse the sun that gazes on your misery† (Shelley 154). Victor has taken everything away from the creature, but the creature will always have the mindset on revenge for Victor. The creature will not rest until Victor feels the same misery he felt. This is the final stage of the creature’s life where he ignores his surroundings and takes matters into his own hand. The creature’s failure to blend in with society creates hatred in the creature’s heart for his creator. The only option for the creature is to seek revenge. This shows that the creature’s determination of destroying his creator was far greater than the creatures determination to fit in. Frankenstein Essays -- Literary Analysis,  Mary Shelley â€Å"I am alone and miserable: man will not associate with me; but one as deformed and horrible as myself would not deny herself to me† (Shelley 127). A monster with bad intentions generates a bad reputation in society. However, does a monster whose sole purpose is to achieve and excel treated wrongly because of the way he looks? According to John Bugg’s â€Å"Master of their language: Education and Exile† The creature’s narrative of education unfolds from a personal realization of alterity. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein portrays the creature’s motivation to broaden his education in order to be accepted by society. Despite the creature’s good intentions to broaden his education, his physical appearance disallows him to obtain an education, and therefore the only residual is to seek revenge on his creator. Naturally the creature believes that if he is well educated, people will look beyond his hideous appearance and accept him. Through the inspiration the De Laceys give, â€Å" The creature comes to view the De Laceys as superior beings, who would be the arbiters of [his] future destiny† (Shelley 90). Consequently the creature comes to the realization that the De Laceys are the only people who might be able to broaden his education. Hence he plans on visiting the old blind man because he will not be able to judge the creature by his appearance. In The creature will confront the old man when the rest of the De Laceys are out so he can create a friendship. The creature contemplates his future and he is â€Å"Longing to be accepted into the world he sees and romances through the crack in the De Laceys wall, the creature believes that literacy is the key† (Bugg 661). The creature knows that no one will be able to look past his appearance if he’s not e... ...nsible for what the creature has become. The creature responds,â€Å" You can blast my other passions, but revenge remains-revenge, henceforth dearer than light of food! I may die, but first you, my tyrant and tormentor, shall curse the sun that gazes on your misery† (Shelley 154). Victor has taken everything away from the creature, but the creature will always have the mindset on revenge for Victor. The creature will not rest until Victor feels the same misery he felt. This is the final stage of the creature’s life where he ignores his surroundings and takes matters into his own hand. The creature’s failure to blend in with society creates hatred in the creature’s heart for his creator. The only option for the creature is to seek revenge. This shows that the creature’s determination of destroying his creator was far greater than the creatures determination to fit in.

A Circuitous Path to Dentistry :: Dentistry Admissions Essays

A Circuitous Path to Dentistry I could hardly keep myself from staring at the girl: the right side of her face was misshapen and bigger than the left. Only later did I notice that Cheryl, about nine at the time, had light brown hair, lively brown eyes, and a captivating smile. When she walked into the candy shop where I worked six years ago, Cheryl told me she was a student of my former fourth grade teacher with whom I had kept in contact. We talked then and spent time talking each time she visited. She became a very special friend of mine, one whom I admire greatly. At the time we met, I was taking honors and AP classes, working about twenty hours a week, and feeling sorry for myself. Cheryl's outgoing confidence and good cheer put my situation in perspective. Cheryl was strong, kind, and surprisingly hopeful. She never focused on her facial deformities, but always on the anticipated improvement in her appearance. Her ability to find strength within herself inspired me to become a stronger person. It motivated me to pursue a career where I could help those like Cheryl attain the strength that she possesses. At the time, my initial interest turned toward psychology. Impressed with Cheryl's outlook, I overlooked the source of her strength: she knew that treatment will improve her appearance. Focusing on the emotional aspects of her illness, I volunteered at the Neuropsychiatric Institute. There, I supervised the daily activities of pre-adolescents, played with them, and assisted them in getting dressed. I worked with crack babies, autistic children, and children who had severe behavioral problems. I enjoyed interacting with the children, but I often became frustrated that I was not able to help them. For instance, a young autistic boy frequently hit himself. No one was permitted to stop this child. We had to turn away and allow him to continually strike and hurt himself until he tired. I was increasingly disappointed with the lack of progress I saw in my volunteer work at NPI, but my job again pushed me in the right direction. During the fall quarter of my junior year in college, I left the candy shop where I had worked for nearly five and a half years, and I began working as a senior clerk in the Anesthesiology Residency Program. Ironically work, which frequently made study difficult, helped me find the right

Panama :: Essays Papers

Panama The official name of Panama is the Republic of Panama or (Repà ºblica de Panamà ¡). Panama is located on the narrowest and lowest part of the Isthmus of Panama that links North America and South America. This part of the isthmus is situated between 7 ° and 10 ° north latitude and 77 ° and 83 ° west longitude. Panama is slightly smaller than South Carolina, approximately 77,082 square kilometers. The country’s two coastlines are referred to as the Caribbean and Pacific, rather than the north and south coasts. To the east is Colombia and to the west Costa Rica. Pacific. Dominant features of their landform is highlands forming the continental divide. The higher elevations near borders with Costa Rica and Colombia. The highest point in the country is the Volcà ¡n Barà º which rises to almost 3,500 meters. The lowest elevation is in the middle of the country where it is crossed by the Panama Canal. Most of the population is on the Pacific side of the divide. The population of the country is around 2.8 million with a growth rate of 1.5%. The racial and ethnic groups are 65% mestizo, 14% African descent, 10% Spanish descent, 10% Indian. The religion is 85% Roman Catholic, 5% Protestant, and 5% Islamic. Spanish is the official language, though United States influence and the canal zone reinforce the use of English as a second language. Panama's arts show its ethnic mix. Indian tribes, West Indian groups, mestizos, Chinese, Middle Eastern, Swiss, Yugoslav and North American immigrants have all offer contributed ingredients to the culture. Traditional arts are woodcarving, weaving, ceramics and mask-making. The capital city is Panama City with major cities of Colon, Bocas del Toro, Potobelo, El porvenir, Santiago, Tocumen, La Palma, David, Balboa, and el Dorado. Political culture traditionally characterized by personalism, the tendency to give one's political loyalties to an individual rather than to a party. Politics from 1968 until his death in 1981 dominated by General Omar Torrijos Herrera, Their form of government is Executive under provisions of their 1972 Constitution, as amended in 1978 and 1983. The chief executive is president of the republic, he is assisted by two vice presidents, all elected by popular vote for five-year terms. The unit of currency is the Balboa which is equal to the United States dollar. Balboas are available only in coins.